I know this is long but I worked really hard on it. It was for one of my college classes called International Security and Conflict. I read of lot of articles in preparation for writing this so it's not very opinionated but, to be honest, is probably informed by my liberal ideology. Nonetheless, it relies on a lot of facts. I am aware I don't have any followers, which makes me sad, but I recommend just reading this through and commenting on it if you want to. My professor really liked it and gave me an A on it and served it as a model for the class. I am self-aggrandizing myself a little bit but I just want to give people an incentive to read it and to mention that it is not just me who thinks you should read it (obvious bias). I hope you like it, but more importantly, I hope you read it.
Human Intolerance of War
Humans may have a deeply rooted, or even
natural, tendency to support inter-group violence. Evidence of this can be
gleaned from comparative studies between chimpanzees and humans. We both, at
some point in history, descended from the same ancestor and evolved into
different animals. It can be argued, however, that we still share some of the
same biological traits. Beyond biology, we appear to share behaviors. As Thomas
Hayden points out, a near indisputable parallel between chimpanzee raids and
human wars is that conflict in both species tends to arise when there is
environmental stress. Moreover, further studies between chimp and human warfare
have found parallels that include the creation of “depopulated buffer zones
between neighboring territories, amassing a vastly superior force before
attacking, and ecstatic dances of triumph after a victory” (Hayden 2004, 2). In
short, there is strong evidence that suggest that humans have a deeply rooted,
or even natural, tendency to support inter-group violence due to our predisposed
biology. But the case is not so solid that it cannot be questioned. There is
also evidence that gives one the reason to believe that societies will grow
less supportive of war over time, refuting this biological disposition. Because
humans are uniquely rational animals and have the intellectual capacity to
distinguish between what is moral and what is effective, societies will grow
less supportive of war over time.
First, humans have proven that they can identify
an uncivilized and immoral act and stop its continuity. Dueling, at one time in
history, was an accepted mean to settle a dispute between two individuals. Even
one of America’s Founding Fathers, Alexander Hamilton, partook in this act, and
he did so even when he rationally concluded, as an individual, that it made no
sense. The social expectations of his day instead determined his actions.
Hamilton felt that he had to conform to “public prejudice in this particular.”
Once society changed its view of dueling, the practice itself died off. If Burr
had challenged Hamilton to a duel after society had concluded the act was
“contemptible and stupid” (Mueller 2005, 152), he most likely would have laughed
and continued to eat his breakfast without even thinking of accepting the
offer. Violent and irrational practices like this are constantly being
condemned and ended in contemporary human society. For instance, it used to be
societally accepted that teachers could hit their students. Given that kids as
a collective are hard to deal with and at times impossible to control without
taking physical measures, when American society deemed it to be an immoral act
it was put to an end.
In short, humans have the capability to identify
immoral acts even when they make somewhat logical sense. And once an act is
thought of by society to be uncivilized or immoral, humans usually have taken
measures to stop it from occurring. Moreover, humans care so much so that they
will take measures to stop it from occurring in places that they have no direct
relations with. For example, there are organizations dedicated to protecting
human rights globally, such as the Human Rights Watch. This proves that humans
have an innate compassion for humanity, even if it is accompanied by an innate
desire for violence.
Secondly, humans collectively are smart enough
to determine what is moral, and what is effective. Statistically, state-based
wars have declined in severity. Battle-death data shows that “the average
battle-death toll per conflict in the 1950s was almost 10,000, while the
equivalent figure for the new millennium has been less than 1,000” (Trends in
Human Insecurity 2011, 169). Even acknowledging the fact that getting exact battle
death (includes combatant deaths and civilian deaths) data is close to
impossible, this statistic proves that there has been a decline in the
deadliness of warfare since the 1950s. Also, the death toll from one-sided
violence, which “refers to the lethal use of force against civilians by a
government or an organized non-state armed group that results in 25 or more
reported codable deaths in a calendar year” (Human Trends in Insecurity 2011,
177), was at its lowest number in 2008 since 1989. Another shift that occurred
was that non-state armed groups were responsible for most of the deaths of
one-sided violence, taking the place of governments, which was the case in
1989. Furthermore, “there have been no
wars between the major powers since the Korean War ended in 1953” (Cashman and
Robinson 2007, 2). This evidence suggests that humans are becoming less tolerable
of violence and of the killing of non-combatants, especially those that are
carried out by governments. A recent example of this was when Syria was
condemned by some countries in the international community, even Saudi Arabia,
for their attacks on its civilians. The international community is shifting to
a stance that values human life.
Unfortunately, war in the developing regions has
become endemic. Therefore, with these trends in mind, one could come to the
conclusion that societal progression in developing countries is tantamount to
decreasing the amount of conflicts worldwide. For instance, globalization is an
example of societal progression. Economic integration between countries has led
participating countries to be increasingly more diplomatic/benevolent and less
coercive/threatening. Accordingly, economic integration gives nations
incentives to cooperate. In other words, humans can rationally develop a system
that encourages cooperation and diminish the likelihood for inter-group violence.
Thirdly, even if human beings have a biological
disposition for violence, it can be surprisingly easy to suppress. Garnering
nationalist support is an exploitive endeavor of humans’ irrationality. A
leader of a nation that tells his or her people that another nation wants to
kill their children, subjugate their men, and rape their women is tapping into
human being’s primordial brain. “There is a structure deep inside the brain
called the amygdala, which plays a key role in fear and aggression…when
subjects are presented with a face of someone from a different race, the
amygdala gets metabolically active – aroused, alert, ready for action”
(Sapolsky 2006, 8). Thus, images of a differing race arouse fear and aggression
within people because they instinctually believe that that person is
representative of a malevolent adversarial group. “Subtly bias the subject
beforehand to think of people as individuals rather than as members of a group,
and the amygdala does not budge” (Sapolsky 2006, 8). This suggests that humans
fear opposing groups rather than an opposing individual. In essence, humans
have a biological disposition for violence when they see members of a different
race. This occurs, however, with no knowledge about the person or any
rationality involved whatsoever.
Despite our biological inclinations, however, more
recent studies show that “a person who has a lot of experience with people of
different races, and the amygdala does not activate” (Sapolsky 2006, 8). The
international environment of the twenty-first century allows countries to
practice diplomacy. It allows countries to get a sense of another’s intentions
by interacting with each other. Furthermore, communication between cultures is
much more plausible now. In the past, individuals of different tribal groups
were not able to communicate with one another because of differing language.
Thus, they were not able to convey their intentions. In other words, they were
in the state of nature. They were in a constant security dilemma. Groups
instinctively had to assume the other had devious intentions to best assure
themselves of protection and survival. Based on the knowledge gained from the
study, a rational human being can come to the conclusion that interaction
between races mitigates fear and aggressive impulses, something that societies
have increasingly become more engaged with.
Fourthly, after humans exhausted resources,
which in turn caused them to fight others for dwindling resources, they
developed a system that distributed resources more effectively. As a result,
more and more nations are able to avoid a cause of war, and the most common
cause at that. In essence, if resources in a given societal area were no longer
able to support all of the people in that area, then violence would occur.
Violence would most likely occur under these circumstances because animals have
a natural desire to survive. Thus, they will fight for their own survival, if
necessary. Joining forces, then, was the most rational calculation to maintain
survival. There is primordial evidence that supports this theory. For instance,
less aggressive primates “tend to live in lush rain forests where food is
plentiful and life is easy” (Sapolsky 2006, 2). In other words, when food is
enough for all living things the aggressiveness amongst them declines. In
short, the instinct for survival when humans are experiencing fatally declining
resources initiates the irrational impulse towards violence. Humans that
rationally decide how to sustain their resources and distribute it evenly can thwart
violence while still maintaining their survival.
Fifthly, primates, with whom humans share 98% of
their DNA with, have proven themselves to be rational creatures. Therefore, it
would do humans a disservice if they did not compare themselves with primates
and identify possible biological similarities. First, primate pacifism is
practiced among certain species. In 27 different species of primates, it has
been observed that primates can make up after a fight. This is significant
because it reduces the likelihood of further conflicts between previous
enemies, and reducing conflicts as a whole. Societies, similarly, have taken
reconciliatory actions with other societies. For instance, the United Nations
was established to prevent another World War II. Second, it has been observed
that coalitions can be made among some primate species. In these coalitions,
reciprocity is practiced and a sense of justice can be administered. Even
reconciliation and cooperation is practiced among the most violent primates.
“Tension-reducing reconciliation, in other words, is most likely to occur among
animals who already are in the habit of cooperating and have an incentive to
keep doing so” (Sapolsky 2006, 4).
In essence, a primate society has the power to
determine individual primate action. This serves as a comparative model to
human societies. For example, if a society fosters an attitude against fighting
war, that society will be less inclined to fight wars. Japan and Germany used
to be extremely aggressive nations. Now they have transformed themselves into
very peaceful nations by changing their cultures. Germany is not even allowed
to print war propaganda.
Accordingly, society has the ability to redefine
social morals. In some societies, men gain recognition from their peers based
on what their society has determined to be “manly.” In tribal societies, a
man’s prestige was generally recognized in battle. However, in other societies
men received that same prestige through nonviolent means. “But, as was the case
with the Bush Negroes of Dutch Guiana, it is artistic ability which is
necessary to win a girl’s approval, the same young man would have to be carving
rather than going out on a war party” (Mead 1990, 3). This is already
noticeable in modern industrialized societies. In America, as one example, the prestige
of a person is determined by their job, and the value of a job is determined by
society through how much income one is allotted and how noble of a job it is;
also determined by society. It is the same human biological desire for
recognition, but it is achieved through different means.
In other words, humans have a biological
predisposition to be valued by others in society. That value, however, does not
have to be gained through violence. A
rational society can redirect that recognition seeking desire into more
productive and nonviolent means, as proven by today’s industrialized societies.
Furthermore, even primate culture influences how primates act. A study where
almost all of the most aggressive dominant males in a savanna baboon group died
off birthed a culture of less aggression and more affiliating behavior. This
culture persisted even when subsequent aggressive male baboons entered the
group. Culture determined social behavior in this case.
In conclusion, humans have the intellectual capability
to rationally determine what is moral and what is effective. The evidence suggest
that human beings are leaving their violent past behind them. In the movie, Soldiers of Conscience, it said that
soldiers in past wars were recorded only shooting at their enemy 25% of the
time during battle, suggesting that humans have an either innate, or rational,
disposition to not kill other humans. Also, wars are costly. The human toll is
significant in itself and the financial toll on countries, which has been
linked to the decline of once vibrant economies, is significant as well. Germany’s
population after the Thirty Years War “declined from 21 million to under 13.5
million” (Mueller 2005, 150). Thus, the magnitude of devastation that wars have
caused in the past, and continue to cause in the present will prove to be too
much. It will cause humans to reassess the morality of war and its
effectiveness, which could lead to its obliteration.
Works Cited
Cashman, Greg,
and Leonard C. Robinson. 2007. An Introduction to the Causes of War.
Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Hayden, Thomas.
2004. “The Roots of War: Can Humanity ever escape its age-old legacy of
battle?” US News & World Report, 26 April: 44-50.
Mead, Margaret.
1990. “Warfare is Only an Invention – Not a Biological Necessity.” In The
Dolphin Reader. 2nd edition. ed. Douglas Hunt. Boston, MA: Houghton Miffflin
Company. 415-421.
Mueller, John.
2005. “The Obsolescence of Major War.” In Conflict
After the Cold War: Arguments on Causes of War and Peace. 2nd edition. ed.
Richard K. Betts. New York: Longman. 146-157.
Sapolsky,
Robert M. 2006 “A Natural History of Peace.” Foreign Affairs, Jan: 1-9.
Soldiers of
Conscience. Dir. Catherine Ryan and Gary Weimberg. Public Broadcasting Service,
2007. Film.
“Trends in
Human Insecurity.” Human Security Report. Oxford University Press, 2011.
Web. 3 Sept. 2011. <http://www.hsrgroup.org////HumanSecurityReport-Part3-TrendsInHumanInsecurity.pdf>.